Endocrinological and molecular background of nutrients and nutrition
Today, foods and diets have started to attract attention in the prevention and even treatment of many diseases, from metabolic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases to gastrointestinal diseases, osteoporosis, allergies and cancer. When we evaluate foods from a different perspective, the door to a completely different world is opened. When we enter through this door, we see that endocrinology, molecular medicine winks at us and signals us to divert our direction from what we know. In healthy nutrition, complex interesting processes involving endocrinological and molecular interactions and consequences are discussed, as well as calculating how much macronutrients such as carbohydrates, protein and fat are to be taken or how many calories are included. These are coronanutrition,
Calorie Restriction
Caloric restriction not only leads to less energy intake, but also leads to some beneficial hormone changes. The most important of these are the decrease in the appetite hormone ghrelin and the activation of sirtuins and autophagy (1).
Endocrinological Overview of Macronutrients
Endocrinological view of carbohydrates: 50-55% of our daily calories should be provided from carbohydrates for a healthy diet. Incretins, a hormone that is secreted after meals and lowers blood sugar by stimulating insulin secretion from the pancreas, is one of the newly discovered hormones and it has been found to decrease in diabetes. It has been understood that short-chain fatty acids, which are formed by the metabolization of complex carbohydrates in whole grains and vegetables and fruits, have very important roles in metabolism, and one of them is to increase incretins. Fibers (fiber/pulp), which are also indigestible carbohydrates, suppress harmful cytokines secreted from adipose tissue.
Endocrinological view of proteins: 15% of the calories taken in the daily diet should be protein. Proteins have satiating effects. Fish proteins have been shown to have a greater satiety effect than red meat and chicken proteins. One of the reasons for this is that the amino acid tryptophan is higher in fish. It has been shown that foods containing the amino acid tryptophan are more filling. It has been shown that high protein diets stimulate the release of satiety hormones such as cholecystokinin and GLP-1 the most in the presence of carbohydrates (2-4).
Endocrinological view of fats: Maximum 30% of the calories taken in the daily diet should be fat. It should consist of 10% polyunsaturated, 10% monounsaturated and 7-10% saturated fats. Medium-chain fatty acids found in milk, cheese, yoghurt, butter and long-chain fatty acids found in fish, olive and vegetable oils mediate insulin secretion by activating the cell membrane G receptor called FFAR1 (GPR40) in pancreatic beta cells and mediate insulin secretion, and GPR120, also found in the intestine. By activating its receptor, they increase the secretion of the incretin hormone called GLP-1. Conjugated linoleic acid, which has antitumor, antiobese, antiatherogenic and antidiabetic effects in meat and dairy products, is also a potent cholecystokinin hormone secretagogue.
With the studies conducted in the field of nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics, which is a new branch of science that has emerged in recent years, the effects of gene-nutrient content interaction and gene expression differences on the formation, course and management of some diseases have begun to be investigated, and results that may change our perspective have emerged. Some nutrients play a role in genes gaining activity or inactivation, interacting with DNA and regulating people's susceptibility to diseases. Again, the detection of the effects of some nutrients on micro RNA levels that regulate gene function and metabolism aroused excitement and made the science of nutrigenetics popular.
Circadian Nutrition (Corononutrusion)
The body has a biological timing or biological rhythm adjusted for 24 hours. The central circadian clock located in the hypothalamus of the brain is activated via a nerve bundle called the "retinohypothalamic pathway" when light comes into the retina. While the stimuli arising from this directly regulate the sleep-wake state and nutritional signals, they also regulate hormonal and metabolic functions with endocrine or autonomic innervation in the periphery. Circadian rhythms regulate cell cycle proteins, growth factors, coagulation factors, immune functions and the expression of many genes. Metabolism, food consumption, meal timing and some nutrients also affect the circadian clock with feedback. For example, having breakfast determines the circadian clock in the liver. It has been reported that disruption of the circadian rhythm causes cancer, metabolic diseases and neurodegenerative diseases in animal models. Lack of sleep leads to insulin resistance. The most suitable diet for the circadian rhythm is that the calories taken in the evening are less than the lunch meal and the calories for the lunch are less than the morning meal. High-fat diets reduce the effect of the circadian mechanism. Some foods containing herbal melatonin have been suggested as coronotherapeutic. These are oats, barley, corn,
Diet to Create a Healthy Microbiota
There are 10 times as many bacteria in our gut as the normal body. These bacteria contain a certain ratio of beneficial and harmful bacteria. When beneficial bacteria decrease and harmful bacteria increase, a pathological process begins. Beneficial bacteria are involved in biological and chemical processes such as vitamin, short chain free fatty acid (SCFA) production, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) production, amino acid synthesis, bile acid biotransformation, fermentation and hydrolysis of indigestible nutrients, modulation of the immune system, ammonia synthesis and detoxification. . Microbial dysbiosis, in which the beneficial/harmful bacteria ratio is impaired, has been associated with allergies, inflammatory bowel disease, cancer, lupus, asthma, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, celiac disease, obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. The most important energy source of the microbiota is the complex carbohydrates taken with the diet. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) such as acetate, propionate and butyrate are formed by fermentation from ingested and indigestible polysaccharides. SCFAs exhibit positive effects on obesity and diabetes by increasing satiety hormones such as peptide YY and GLP-1.
The effect of dietary fats on the microbiota is negative. The increased gram-negative bacteria in obese and diabetics disrupt the intestinal mucosal integrity. As a result of high-fat nutrition, mucosal integrity is impaired, wall permeability increases in intestinal cells, and plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS) level, which belongs to pathogenic bacteria, increases. The increase in plasma LPS level causes the activation of pathways that are factors in the increase of inflammation and the formation of metabolic diseases. It has been observed that a diet rich in saturated fatty acids contributes to the development of fatty liver and obesity, and increases the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes bacteria in the intestinal microbiota.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is produced in the rumen (rumen) of ruminant animals as a result of biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acid in feed. CLA has anticarcinogenic, antiobesity, antidiabetic and antiatherogenic effects. In the spring, the CLA ratio in the rumen of animals fed with fresh grass, especially in high altitude pastures, increases considerably. Dairy products such as butter, yoghurt and cheese of these animals in this period are beneficial due to their high CLA content.
Overfeeding with animal protein also has a negative effect on the microbiota. 10% of the ingested proteins reach the large intestine without being digested, where they are fermented by bacterial microbiota and converted into various metabolic products. It has been suggested that these harmful metabolites cause colorectal cancer, inflammatory bowel disease and atherosclerosis. With the emergence of the role of intestinal microbiota in metabolic diseases, the use of prebiotic and probiotic targeted nutrition and prebiotic / probiotic agents in diabetes and obesity has come to the fore. Fermented milk products (homemade yogurt, cheese, kefir), sourdough bread, vinegar, wine, boza, tarhana, sauerkraut, unpasteurized olives, hardaliye can be counted as probiotic foods. As prebiotic food, barley, rye, wheat, banana, artichoke, leek, asparagus, celery, onion,
Foods and diet that will increase Glp-1: Olive oil, omega-3, complex carbohydrates, fermentable dietary fibers, resveratrol, mate tea, gelatin in the skin of Atlantic salmon, whey proteins (whey proteins) incretin, which gives a feeling of satiety and lowers blood sugar they cause an increase in GLP-1, which is one of the hormones (11).
Foods and diet that increase brown adipose tissue: Brown adipose tissue is a metabolically active adipose tissue that is only found in a very small amount in the neck region of humans, which is responsible for energy expenditure. It has been suggested that some foods cause metabolic browning of white adipose tissue in animal models. These nutrients can be counted as resveratrol, capsaicin (the substance that gives bitterness to hot pepper), curcumin (turmeric), mulberry, omega-3, green tea, berberine, tymol, quercetin, menthol. Resveratrol is found in vines, grapes, mulberries, blueberries, peanuts, cranberries, raspberries, and pistachios (12).
Foods and diet that trigger autophagy: Autophagy is a kind of quality control system of the cell. It is the process of removing worn out, aged, overproduced, toxic proteins by the lysosome. Impaired autophagy leads to cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Apart from calorie restriction and intermittent fasting or infrequent feeding, phytochemicals such as resveratrol, catechin, quarsetin, and curcumin are suggested to trigger autophagy (13, 14).
Foods That Activate Sirtuins
Sirtuin is a class of protein involved in metabolic regulation and is essentially a class III histone deacetylase. Sirtuin protein, first identified from the fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is an abbreviation for silent information regulator 2 (SIR2). There are a total of seven sirtuins in the nucleus, mitochondria, and cytoplasm. It regulates various physiological processes. It protects the cell against various metabolic stresses. Aging is involved in apoptosis and inflammation. It provides benefits by removing the acetyl group in histone. Foods that activate sirtuins are resveratrol, curcumin, epigallocatechin - 3 -gallate found in green tea, indole-3 carbinol found in broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, arugula, radish. The isoflavone genistein, which inhibits a protein called tyrosine kinase that causes tumors to grow, also activates sirtuins. Foods containing genistein ( soybeans and soy products, dried legumes and dark green leafy vegetables (spinach, lettuce, chard, purslane))(15).
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